The changes in church architecture were related to precise figural purposes: to welcome, shelter, and embrace the faithful in a setting both stately and dignified, designed along perspective lines to give a sense of depth, all culminating in the ambulatory apse. Church interiors were a complex and densely moulded material characterized by strong chiaroscuro contrasts that reinforced the plastic outlines of the columns and increased the sense of layered atmospheric density and spatial depth.
From the structural point of view, this was made possible through the adoption of the system of bays taken as spatial units; they were no longer divisions, marked off by transverse arches, of a unitary space, but were rather spatial bodies that were added one to the next, an addition of cells in a rigidly symmetrical order. The isolated crossing had become a normal element that constituted the fulcrum of the building, conferring order and measure. The wall itself went through a transformation.
It was now structured as a plastic mass that could be disassembled and into which space could enter by way of openings in its surface, sometimes creating internal galleries along which people could move. By then, the pier had taken the place of the column almost everywhere; in Italy, ornamentation and wall sculptures became more common, but without suffocating the architectural function of the wall.
Some expressions of Romanesque architecture seem inseparable from their natural setting. Outstanding examples are the abbey of Mont-St-Michel in Normandy, the regional home of the Romanesque Bayeux Tapestry suspended between earth and water, the basilica of Sainte Foy at Conques, set atop a steep cliff in the Auvergne, or the cathedral of Trani, Italy, overlooking the Adriatic, its bell tower serving as a welcome beacon to sailors.
The Cathedral of Santiago de Compostela, the final goal of the pilgrimage routes to the tomb of the apostle saint St James , despite its monumental size, repeats in large part the building models of the period: a basilica with a nave and two aisles with galleries, transept, and choir with ambulatory.
Because of the absence of direct illumination of the nave, the enormous space is immersed in a half-light that brings out the severe articulation of the architecture. The choir alone is crowned by windows, which cast an almost mystical illumination on the tomb of St James.
Romanesque Architecture in Brief. Romanesque architects built a wide variety of different buildings, of which the most common were: village churches, abbey churches, cathedrals and castles. The most important were the great abbey churches, many of which are in use.
Typical characteristics of Romanesque architecture include:. Larger openings were nearly always arched. Note: an arcade consists of a row of arches, supported on either columns or piers. Columns were either drum columns if small or hollow core if large. Piers were typically built out of masonry and were either square or rectangular.
Capitals on columns were usually of the foliate Corinthian style. Vaulted roofs generally featured barrel-vaults and groin vaults made of stone or brick. Eventually, these evolved into the pointed ribbed arch used in Gothic architecture. Types included: square, circular and octagonal towers.
History Brief Outline. Pre-Romanesque architecture was the house style of King Charlemagne, ruler of the Franks Supported also by the Ottonian Emperors during the 10th century, the Romanesque style was also embraced by the powerful Cluniac order, as exemplified by its headquarters at the Abbey of Cluny, in France, and by its magnificent pilgrimage churches of St Martin at Tours, St Sernin at Toulouse, and the Cathedral of Santiago de Compostela, in Galicia, Spain.
By the tenth century, the period of great invasions which had continually threatened the West for the past seven centuries had just come to a close, and religious building was about to reach perfection. From now on, the tenth century, though still troubled, became a great period for construction.
Structures which had been burnt or demolished by the Normans were speedily rebuilt. An entirely new taste evolved, a point of departure towards a fresh, logical kind of art: using fine stone, decoration stemming from basic features, such as door-jambs, and colour obtained not from inset bricks but from projecting string-courses opposing black and white and so bringing black walls to life.
Apart from the solution to the problem of vaulting, all the ingredients of the later Romanesque style were already apparent in these buildings. The second half of the century witnessed an artistic revival instigated by Emperor Otto and his sons. See also: Ottonian Art c. Some of the noteworthy innovations of this period, including the siting of a transept organically linked to the other limbs of the building, lead directly to the cruciform Romanesque plan, the basic core of its finest developments.
By the mids the routes across the Alps were finally cleared of brigands and the way was reopened for exchanges between Italy, France and the German lands. There is a definite connexion between the easing of this situation and the migrations of craftsmen from Como who, with an extraordinary aptitude for expansion, conveyed their obscurely elabourated building techniques through the valleys and over the Alpine passes to distant countries.
In , Emperor Otto I, then at the height of his political power, followed the example of Charlemagne and received the imperial crown from the hands of the Pope in Rome.
The purpose of this act was not only to set a seal on the agreement emphasizing that the Papacy was dependent on the Empire. The Emperor was claiming the foundation of a stable order based on the Christian faith, and he well knew that no one in the West would contest this privilege with him.
To the German Emperor all dreams of a hegemony seemed permissible, and architecture was the foremost of the arts to bear witness to the imperial splendour. Just as Charlemagne had done before him, Otto turned to Constantinople, marrying his son to the daughter of Emperor John Tzimisces. Between the Emperor, known to posterity by the strange and untranslatable title of 'mirabilia mundi,' and Gerbert of Aurillac, who became Pope Sylvester II in , there existed a bond of souls.
This was the majesty of the Pax Romana without recourse to arms. Otto died prematurely in , and his death marked a fault in the political development of Europe. Before the end of the century his Utopian coalition was to be brutally shattered against the rock of Canossa.
The entire situation changed. In the eleventh century the Papacy was no longer weak and docile as it had been in the previous century. By his fearless attitude he roused the anger of the German king, Henry IV, who coldly deposed him at Worms with the aid of a council loyal to his interests.
Gregory's reply was to absolve Henry's German subjects from all obligations to their sovereign. Their stern reconciliation at Canossa - which symbolized the submission of secular power to the Papacy - was only temporary and the return to antagonism lasted until the hard won Concordat of Worms in The dramatic repercussions of this antagonism were confined to the two protagonists - Germany vacillating between the Pope and the Emperor, and papal Italy.
The whole of Europe, however, suffered from this surge of trouble. Apart from equivocal supporters and secret opportunists the Holy See at least had the ever loyal support of the strength of Cluny brought to its zenith by a century and a half of progress. By the express desire of its founder, Duke William of Aquitaine, the small community on the banks of the Grosne was recognized as a direct possession of St Peter under whose patronage the Duke had purposely placed it.
It continued to be granted exemption by the Popes with the result that its expansion was based on a jealously maintained independence of the local temporal and spiritual powers. The eminent Abbots of Cluny, Odo, Aimard, and Mayeul, set about transforming their humble monastery into a powerful influence and initiating a much needed reform of the Church and its morals. Bound by affection and a mutual deference to the rulers of Germany, Mayeul and his successor, St Odilo of Mercoeur, acclaimed their consecration as Emperors, and Hugh of Semur who followed Odilo in was Henry IV's sponsor.
The subsequent struggle between the German king and Gregory VII put him in an embarrassing and uncomfortable position. At Canossa he wholeheartedly interceded for the penitent king, but he was, and continued to be, on the Pope's side.
When, a few years later, Gregory, in order to repay the Abbot for his loyalty, publicly praised the abbey of Cluny he was only reaffirming what was well known already. Though formerly uninfluential, the protection of the reaffirmed papacy was a powerful aid to the consolidation of the vigour of Cluny which simultaneously made a return offering of its prestige and vast resources.
The Popes strengthened the abbey with privileges and guarantees extending to the entire Congregation together with its priories overseas. It is no exaggeration that, from until the end of the schism in , the fortunes of the Roman church could be identified with those of Cluny. Eleventh Century: Highpoint of Romanesque Architecture. Romanesque architecture reached its zenith in the eleventh century hinging on the year when Urban II proclaimed the Crusade, and it would be pointless to ask what this medieval civilization would have been without Cluny.
However, we should recall that, besides the great abbey church built by St Hugh, many of its outstanding masterpieces were also Cluniac properties or foundations. These names are chosen at random from among the astonishing list of Cluniac buildings surveyed by Dr Joan Evans. Above all they bear witness to the eclecticism of Cluny which never imposed itself as a prototype on any of its daughter foundations and, despite the organic centralization favoured by Abbots Odilo and Hugh, allowed individual regional tastes free development.
Asceticism and Its Effects on Architecture. This flexible independence did not survive the decline of the Cluniacs. With the early years of the twelfth century the Cistercians and, to a lesser extent, the Cartusians took up the position formerly held by Cluny in religious affairs.
The original asceticism of the Carthusians, the austerity enjoined on the Cistercians by St Bernard, and the evolution of history itself, now determined the prototypes to which builders throughout Christendom had to refer. The creation of the military orders also reinforced this ascetic approach to religion. The conventual churches of the Templars and Hospitalers were not outstanding for their size or fine architecture, most of them being plain, small-scale buildings. This aspiration to poverty, a reaction against the excessive luxury of the Church, even extended to Peter the Venerable, despite his artistic heritage.
Very significantly it also agrees with the opinions expressed by Peter Abelard in the directives which he wrote to Heloise. In fact, it was the aspiration of all the monastic reformers of the late eleventh century and, moreover, coincided with the movement in Islam which just as firmly repudiated the rich decorations and facings of the mosques of Spain and the Maghreb.
Thus it is not out of place at this point to draw attention to the fact that one of the earliest examples of this change in architectural style is to be found in Aragon, a region which had contacts with both Christian and Moslem civilization. In the late eleventh century the royal Augustinian foundation of Siresa hidden in one of the valleys of the Pyrenees chose a completely austere approach which was strictly opposed to all ornamental or figurative experiments.
Throughout the eleventh and twelfth centuries, rival religious houses continued to be constituted, and abbey charters other than those of Cluny bear witness to the foundation of country priories devoted to cultivation of the land. The great trade routes were reopened with a lively increase in traffic across the Alps now freed from local raiders; merchants from Flanders, the Rhineland, and the cities of Lombardy mingled with soldiers in the field, abbots on their missions, and pilgrims on their way to Rome.
Suburbs with shops sprang up around abbeys sited near city gates, and an invigorating taste for adventure succeeded the heavy social inertia of the tenth century. Undoubtedly one of the most striking expressions of this mood was the development of pilgrimages. In fact, these had never completely ceased. Even during the most troubled years of the ninth and tenth centuries, bold spirits kindled with enthusiasm and braved every kind of danger to embrace the rock of Calvary and kiss the tombs of the apostles.
With the eleventh century, however, began a troubled period which once more disproved the theory of a new dawn about to break. The mad Caliph, Hakim, sacked and destroyed the Latin foundations and, afterwards, the Byzantine Emperors took the place of those of the West in the task of restoring and safeguarding the Holy Places.
Roman Christendom, however, was tortured by remorse and filled with desire to regain the tomb of Christ even more than the pilgrimage road which had never been completely cut even at the period of the worst setbacks. When the Cluniac Pope, Urban II, proclaimed the Crusade at Clermont-Ferrand, he roused an indescribable enthusiasm which showed that the time was ripe. The results of his expedition, the conquest of Palestine and the establishment of the Latin kingdom were manifold.
In the field of architecture, the building of the Romanesque Church of the Holy Sepulchre was an outward sign both of the power and love of the Crusaders. The principle of the orientation of churches was so strongly ingrained in this generation sated with symbolism that, even in the hard-won city of Jerusalem, the new shrine had its chevet at the east end like any other church. To Constantine's rotunda which had last been reconstructed to the orders of Emperor Constantine Monomachos in was added a compact, cruciform design with a wide projecting transept and a semicircular choir surrounded by an ambulatory with three radiating chapels.
On the south is a double entrance door between the belfry on the left and the square Calvary Chapel on the right. The building was consecrated in and offers a combination of styles inherited from East and West, including motifs from Poitou, Burgundy and Languedoc. There is even a rib vault over the transepts. This impressive building dominated a vast development program of churches, monasteries, commanderies, and hospices balancing the securing of the frontier defences by the huge fortresses of Beaufort, Margat, and Krak des Chevaliers.
These cyclopean buildings with their formidable roughstone walls covered with mason's marks and their moats hollowed out of the rock are, in fact, the forerunners of modern concrete shelters and emanate the same feeling of stifling oppression.
This large-scale undertaking introduced western building methods to the East while, simultaneously, the sight of the fabulous treasures of Constantinople kindled fresh flames in the ever lively imaginations of Christian builders. The same overflow of abundant energy, at a somewhat more realistic level, brought about the twofold conquest of England and Southern Italy by the Normans less than two hundred years after their establishment in They introduced their great timber-roofed churches with hollow walls and lantern towers to Britain and, between and , built no fewer than twelve hundred castles which gradually benefited from lessons learned by military architects in the preparations of the defences of the Holy Land; the ruins of many of these may be seen today throughout England and Wales.
In their Mediterranean territories, at Monreale, Palermo, and Cefalu, they produced the most amazing blends of Arab, Byzantine, and Nordic influences to be found in the Romanesque world.
The two other major pilgrimages to Rome and Santiago de Compostela were somewhat less dangerous than that to the Holy Land and, from the tenth to the twelfth century, were almost equally popular. The restoration work on the route undertaken by King Alfonso V in the early years of the eleventh century coincided with the progress of the spread of the Gospel among the Basques who soon freed the western passes of the Pyrenees.
The stubborn forcing back of the Arabs crowned by the conquest of the Rioja enabled Alfonso VI of Castille to pursue the systematic organization of the fine road which soon received the title of 'camino. The power of Cluny came to the aid of the undertaking, made itself felt throughout the road's dangerous length, and effectively lent its support. The movement of countless pilgrims across the lands of Christendom, ships going to and fro across the sea beneath the equivocal sign of the Cross, treasures scattered, like the gifts of the Magi, round the slabs on which rest the witnesses of Christ, hymns and songs enfolding the marchers - all this ferment lies at the very heart of Romanesque civilization.
Classification of Romanesque Architecture. The eminent archeologist Pierre Lavedan classified Romanesque architecture according to the vaulting system adopted in the main nave. He distinguishes three groups: 1 churches with tunnel or groined vaults without galleries over the aisles; 2 churches with tunnel or groined vaults with galleries over the aisles; and 3 churches vaulted with a series of domes.
The first category includes Burgundy, Poitou and Provence; the second comprises the fine series of churches in the region of Clermont-Ferrand and the group known as churches of the pilgrimage roads; and the third besides the compact group of domed churches in Angoumois, Perigord and Quercy, three separate buildings which seem to have little connexion with one another or their surroundings: St Hilaire at Poitiers, Solignac, and the cathedral at Le Puy.
This classification at least has the advantage of being original. Cleverly avoiding previous theories, it acknowledges the basic preoccupation of the Romanesque builders - the search for a vaulting system which maintained an even balance, and takes note of the varied solutions proposed.
From time to time, churches of timber construction were destroyed by great fires and this encouraged their builders to use stone instead of inflammable materials. Stone vaults also lent an interior far greater dignity, unity and structural solidity than could be obtained from timber vaults or flat ceilings. To limit the field of Romanesque expansion to vaulted churches is, however, too severe a restriction and involves the entire elimination of Scandinavia.
The timber-roofed naves of the eleventh and twelfth centuries do not indicate the survival of an outdated tradition in church building; they pursue and develop individual constructional experiments in the fields of rhythmic elevation and the division of masses which are no less revolutionary than the vaults devised by Romanesque architects.
The Pilgrimage Churches. Some architects and archeologists have identified a separate school known as 'the churches of the pilgrimage roads'. This includes only three surviving buildings: the abbey church of Conques, the church of St Sernin at Toulouse, and the cathedral of Compostela. There were also, however, two churches now destroyed: the pilgrimage shrine of St Martin at Tours and the abbey church of St Martial at Limoges.
The building of these five churches extended over the whole of the eleventh century and carried on into the next, maintaining remarkable fidelity to the original conception. This was on a generous scale to allow for the handling of large crowds; chevets were prominently developed and allowance was made for movement around the high altar; both transepts and naves were flanked by aisles, and above these were quadrant vaulted galleries with twin arches opening on to the nave.
The spread of this formula resulted in some striking buildings elsewhere, including St Remy at Rheims, Saint-Sauveur at Figeac, and churches at Marcilhac and St Gaudens. Connexions may also be noted with the great Romanesque churches of Lower Auvergne, and the harmonious ternary rhythm of St Etienne at Nevers plainly seems to derive from it. There also arose a simultaneous belief that it was possible to solve another riddle of Romanesque architecture which had formed a stumbling block in the classification of provincial schools, by recourse to the theory of roads.
Aquitaine possesses a magnificent group of churches spread out across Angoumois, Saintonge, Perigord, Quercy and the Limousin, which are vaulted with a series of domes.
These roof choir, nave and transepts, as well as the crossing. This arrangement results in a startling monumental effect completely different to the narrow divisions formed by the more usual vaulted naves: it expands the interior space to the greatest possible extent and the resulting plan is defined by a succession of perfect squares penetrated by waves of light and providing total visibility as there are no interior pillars.
There is a rhythmic sense of movement from bay to bay which seems to be inspired by the swelling domes. The outer areas are only fully developed in the chevets with their small radiating apses.
In periods of insecurity such as the crusade against the Albigensians and the Hundred Years' War, these buildings were easily adaptable for defence purposes. These churches may have derived from Christian Byzantine art , but their grouping and distribution remain subjects of discussion. In drawing up a survey of these domed churches, it has lately been noted that they are scattered along the Roman road which led from Rodez to Cahors and thence to Saintes by way of Perigueux and Angouleme, and was still in use during the Romanesque period.
Why, however, out of all the great roads crossing medieval France used alike by pilgrims and business traffic, should this have been the only one to produce a vigorously defined architectural formula? Why did the extension of this type towards the east die out on the first slopes of the Massif Central, when the distance between Rodez and Auvergne, the Velay and the Mediterranean regions is really no more than that covered by the western section of the old road?
This theory of the road is no more than approximate and does not explain the most distant manifestations of the style, lost amid many other forms, at St Hilaire in Poitiers, the abbey church of Fontevrault in Touraine, and the cathedral of Le Puy.
Originally the great Romanesque churches glowed with rich materials, gilding, colour and light. Their architecture reigned supreme; stone sculpture surrounding their doors were subservient to it. The interiors of some of the churches were entirely covered with mural paintings , the most famous example being Saint-Savin-sur-Gartempe where the section of the vault over the main nave was modified as work proceeded.
Recent restoration at the pilgrimage church of Saint-Julien at Brioude has revealed traces of strong toned colours and bold marbling effects on the pillars. There seems to have been a special liking for such magnificently coloured buildings throughout Poitou, Touraine and Anjou, but the washed-out, velvety tones we now see are no more than approximations of the originals.
In these regions, the extraordinary richness and liveliness of the wall paintings does not appear to be, as elsewhere, a convenient substitute for the lost art of mosaic , but a technique in its own right, accomplished, highly inventive and conforming to its own individual laws.
The lack of local workshops with suitable qualifications often caused the replacement of large painted compositions by mere semblances of decoration. This uniformity was crowned, however, by the highlights of painted decoration applied to capitals and tympana, and extending to the triumphal representations of Christ in majesty surrounded by the symbols of the Evangelists in the apses.
In odd corners of the church on free spaces of wall specially prepared at eye level, some imaginative artist would portray a patron saint or some edifying scene whose unexpected appearance disrupted the symmetry of the walls.
This contributed to the flexible expansion of free, spontaneous life which enhanced the medieval churches and prevented them from becoming stereotyped and monotonous. An atmosphere of light and glowing colour seems to have been one of the basic spiritual needs of the Romanesque. Apart from its nineteenth-century painted wooden ceiling, the nave of Ely Cathedral has much in common with that of Durham Cathedral. Both naves are almost contemporary.
The ambulatory of Fleury Abbey, France. Early twelfth century. This image gives some idea of what the area around the shrine of St Cuthbert at Durham Cathedral may have looked like before it was modified in the 13th century. Detail of the choir of Fleury Abbey showing columns with figural carving.
Many religious buildings from the Romanesque period, especially in France and Italy, had extremely detailed figural carving, often depicting biblical scenes. Fleury Abbey is a good example. The Romanesque undercroft space under a church at Fleury Abbey, France. Romanesque undercrofts of this type have led to the suggestion that what it known as the Norman Chapel at Durham Castle was in fact an undercroft itself and not a chapel See next image.
Historic accounts seem to indicate that it was in fact a chapel though. The portico at Fleury Abbey. Circa A stone font made circa and depicting its maker, Richard of Durham, in St. Bridget's Church, Bridekirk. For more information see paradoxplace. Ruins of Fountains Abbey, North Yorkshire, A doorway at Gradefes Convent, Spain, late twelfth century. The zig-zag pattern, known as the chevron, was common in Norman buildings, and seems to have been an Islamic influence. It appears in numerous places in Durham Cathedral, and is used to great effect in the Gallilee Chapel, built in the s by Hugh le Puiset see previous image.
The chevron's effectiveness lies in its ability to visually break a solid mass, making a building seem lighter. It functions in the same way a zebra's stripes do, for example. The nave of Hereford Cathedral, 11th century onwards, For more information about the building see Paradox Place. This view of the nave shows the Romanesque arches of the Norman building at the lower level, but later gothic architecture above. The pointed arches and elaborate ribbed vaulting of gothic architecture seen in the ceiling of this nave developed from the first successful attempt to use both at Durham Cathedral.
The arcades of Lindisfarne Priory, especially the pillars with a chevron zigzag design, are like a scaled-down version of those of Durham Cathedral. This is hardly surprising: The priory was refounded in the early twelfth century by the Durham-based community of St Cuthbert, after the building of the Cathedral. It is possible that the same masons worked on both buildings. A pillar at Lindisfarne Priory, dating from the early 12th century.
Although heavily eroded, the chevron or zigzag design on this pillar is clear. As the Priory was refounded in the early twelfth century by the Durham-based community of St Cuthbert, it is likely it the same masons who built Durham Cathedral also worked here.
This would explain the similarity in the details of the two buildings such as the pillars. The geometric designs carved in the stone pillars of Durham Cathedral were common in Norman architecture. The specific details of these suggest that the masons who carved them also worked on Lindisfarne Priory to the North of Durham. In countries like Spain, warm weather meant that the arcades of the cloisters could remain open unglazed. This enabled the use of arcaded columns such as the ones seen here.
In places like Durham, where the cloisters needed to be glazed, they usually took the form of rows of large windows instead - an example of how climate can affect the way in which the same architectural feature is expressed. Buildings like this were the work both of their patrons and craftsmen, both of whom often wanted to impress others with their work.
The group of columns pictured here is likely to have been a craftsman's touch. It is an example of an eleventh-century mason showing off his skill. The carved panels in this building are thought to be the work of the same craftsman who worked on the Abbey of St.
Pierre de Mossaic in France. This is not unlikely: skilled craftsmen moved around from one project to another. Santo Domingo de Silos is on the much-travelled pilgrimage route to Santiago de Compostela in North-East Spain, which was dotted with important religious buildings, and would have been an obvious route for talented craftsmen in search of work to take.
View of the cloisters of Monreale Cathedral, Sicily, late 12th century. For more information see about the building see Paradox Place. The cloisters of Monreale Cathedral make heavy use of the chevron zigzag design, which appears in Durham Cathedral as well.
Detail of the columns in the cloisters of Monreale Cathedral, Sicily, late 12th century. The use of gold mosaic, popular in Byzantine art, never really died out, probably because its effect was so dazzling. In this example, the combination of several geometric patterns indicates a strong Islamic influence.
View of Norwich Cathedral, begun in It is often difficult to imagine that the interior of Romanesque churches would have originally been quite colourful. The geometric designs still seen at Poitiers, however, give us a good sense of what Durham Cathedral and the Norman Chapel at Durham Castle may have looked like. The construction of the columns is similar to that of those in the chapel at Durham Castle in that they are made of blocks of stone, rather than being monolithic.
For more information about this building, see Paradox Place. This facade is a good example of Romanesque architecture in that is very solid, makes use of rows of rounded arches encompassing figural sculpture, and features geometric patterns as well. Detail of the mosaic floor of Otranto Cathedral, Italy, 12th century. For more information about the building, see Paradox Place.
The mosaics depict months of the year and the labour associated with them, signs of the zodiac, and important historic figures. This detail shows Alexander the Great.
Mosaics featured prominently in Roman and Byzantine architecture, and it is not surprising to see that this craft tradition was very much alive in 12th century Italy. Image of the mosaics of Otranto Cathedral, Italy 12th century.
Interior view of Peterborough Cathedral, England, onwards. An eleventh-century apse in the priory of Villeneuve d'Aveyron in France.
The wall paintings dating from the fourteenth century depict scenes of pilgrims, a reminder of the importance of religious buildings as places of pilgrimage in medieval times -- a role which Durham shared. This 12th century doorway in Durham Castle, bears a resemblance to another at Santiago de Compostela in Spain see next image.
The arches that define the naves of these churches are well modulated and geometrically logical—with one look you can see the repeating shapes, and proportions that make sense for an immense and weighty structure. There is a large arcade on the ground level made up of bulky piers or columns.
The piers may have been filled with rubble rather than being solid, carved stone. Above this arcade is a second level of smaller arches, often in pairs with a column between the two. The next higher level was again proportionately smaller, creating a rational diminution of structural elements as the mass of the building is reduced.
Gloucester Cathedral, decorative carving on the nave arcade and triforium. The decoration is often quite simple, using geometric shapes rather than floral or curvilinear patterns. Common shapes used include diapers—squares or lozenges—and chevrons, which were zigzag patterns and shapes. Plain circles were also used, which echoed the half-circle shape of the ubiquitous arches.
Early Romanesque ceilings and roofs were often made of wood, as if the architects had not quite understood how to span the two sides of the building using stone, which created outward thrust and stresses on the side walls.
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